Catalina Espinosa
Research expert covering society, economy, and politics for Europe and the EU
Euroscepticism - Statistics & Facts
The European Union has inspired support and opposition in equal measures since its founding. Euroscepticism – the political position which is opposed to the process of European integration – has been a fixture of European politics for decades, as political parties of both the right and left have been skeptical of measures to bind the countries of Europe closer together. In the midst of the global financial crisis, Eurozone debt crisis, and migration and refugee crises of the 2010s, opposition to the EU reached new highs, as almost a third of EU citizens reported a negative opinion of the union in 2012 and the United Kingdom voted to leave the EU in 2016. While this trend of rising eurosceptic attitudes among the general public began to subside after 2016, the vote share of eurosceptic parties has continued to rise to record highs in national parliaments across Europe in the early 2020s. Euroscepticism can be divided between softer and more hardline varities – hardline euroscepticism involves an outright opposition to the EU, with parties following this line proposing for their countries to leave the EU, or, to dismantle the union in its current form. Soft euroscepticism, on the other hand, is associated with opposition to further integration, enlargement, or the centralization of power in the institutions of the EU.
Across Europe, far-right eurosceptic parties have consistently increased their voter share in both European and national elections over the past two decades – the AfD in Germany, National Rally in France, PiS in Poland, Fidesz in Hungary, Brothers of Italy/Lega in Italy, Sweden Democrats in Sweden, PVV in the Netherlands, and Vox in Spain, as well as a host of other parties in smaller member states. These parties oppose European integration to differing extents, but share in common their hostility to more liberal migration and social policies within Europe. As well as right-wing euroscepticism, there are also left-wing anti-EU movements and parties, with the Left Group in the European Parliament having several eurosceptic member parties. These parties see the EU as a 'neoliberal' entity which promotes a form of deregulated free-market capitalism. Nevertheless, these parties tend to be less successful on an electoral level, with most major center-left and left parties in Europe being in favor of the EU and with left-wingers being the group most likely to respond that they are pro-EU.
The challenges which Europe has faced during the the early 2020s, particularly the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, have won the EU much-needed support, as these problems inherently highlight the need for European cooperation. While the EU’s response to these crises, namely the NextGenEU economic stimulus package and military and financial aid to Ukraine, has been popular with citizens, the long-term ramifications of the EU’s policies may in fact embolden eurosceptics, as the reality of increased debt levels and the political difficulties of EU enlargement begin to set in. The European Parliament elections in 2024 are set to be a testing ground for this potential surge in euroscepticism in the 2020s, as right-wing populists are set to make strong gains at the expense of the pro-EU political parties.
What drives opposition to the EU?
The key driving force behind euroscepticism is that eurosceptics view the EU as depriving their countries of national sovereignty. This characterization is contested by supporters of the EU, who point out that member states retain most policy areas as their national prerogative. Nevertheless, lack of national sovereignty over certain policy areas due to the centralization of decision-making power at the EU-level is often cited by citizens as a key reason for having a negative opinion of the EU, with this being especially the case in regard to the control of international migration flows. Relatedly, the EU is often viewed as being overly bureaucratic, with critics claiming it empowers unelected bureaucrats instead of elected politicians. This concern with the 'democratic deficit' in the EU is something that is shared across the political spectrum, however, it is often most successfully wielded by parties of the far-right, who use populist rhetoric to contrast ordinary voters with the Brussels-based elite of the European institutions.Across Europe, far-right eurosceptic parties have consistently increased their voter share in both European and national elections over the past two decades – the AfD in Germany, National Rally in France, PiS in Poland, Fidesz in Hungary, Brothers of Italy/Lega in Italy, Sweden Democrats in Sweden, PVV in the Netherlands, and Vox in Spain, as well as a host of other parties in smaller member states. These parties oppose European integration to differing extents, but share in common their hostility to more liberal migration and social policies within Europe. As well as right-wing euroscepticism, there are also left-wing anti-EU movements and parties, with the Left Group in the European Parliament having several eurosceptic member parties. These parties see the EU as a 'neoliberal' entity which promotes a form of deregulated free-market capitalism. Nevertheless, these parties tend to be less successful on an electoral level, with most major center-left and left parties in Europe being in favor of the EU and with left-wingers being the group most likely to respond that they are pro-EU.
Euroscepticism and the future of Europe
Eurosceptic attitudes among the general public have subsided compared to their peak during the early 2010s – while in 2012, roughly equal amount of people had positive and negative attitudes towards the EU, today 44 percent of Europeans hold a positive attitude, with only 18 percent negative. While this is the case for Europe as a whole, some EU member states have markedly more eurosceptic citizens than others, with Czechia, Greece, Cyprus, France, Austria, and Slovakia having greater than average amounts of their citizens reporting eurosceptic attitudes. Nonetheless, only in Czechia were there more citizens reporting eurosceptic attitudes than pro-EU attitudes in 2023. This may be positive news for the EU’s supporters and allies, but the trend of rising vote share among the eurosceptic right-wing has continued into the 2020s, with eurosceptic parties coming first in elections in Hungary, Italy, and the Netherlands.The challenges which Europe has faced during the the early 2020s, particularly the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, have won the EU much-needed support, as these problems inherently highlight the need for European cooperation. While the EU’s response to these crises, namely the NextGenEU economic stimulus package and military and financial aid to Ukraine, has been popular with citizens, the long-term ramifications of the EU’s policies may in fact embolden eurosceptics, as the reality of increased debt levels and the political difficulties of EU enlargement begin to set in. The European Parliament elections in 2024 are set to be a testing ground for this potential surge in euroscepticism in the 2020s, as right-wing populists are set to make strong gains at the expense of the pro-EU political parties.
